Components

The Price of Wine

/ A Layman's Wine Musings / Leave a comment

Why are there such variations in the price of wine? Does the price reflect the quality? Why are some types of wine more expensive than others? Here are some of the answers to help explain why there can be such variations in price.

Photo credit: ipinimg.com

To begin with, location and climate can have a significant impact on price. Factors such as soil, weather, and region (terroir) can impact grape quality and rarity. Examples include Piedmont Italy’s Nebbiolo grape, which is used to make Barolo, or the production of Châteauneuf-du-Pape wine in the Rhone region of France.

The cost of the land that the vineyard occupies influences the price. For example, the price of a vineyard in Champagne, France is much more expensive than a similar piece of viticultural land in England.

The number of grapes available impacts price. Lower yields where there are fewer grapes on the vines produce less volume but more flavourful, concentrated and thus, more expensive wines.

Hand-harvesting helps ensure that only the best quality grapes make the wine, but the process is more expensive than using machine harvesting.

Wine produced using traditional methods is more costly than wines produced in modern, non-traditional ways. For example, French Champagne costs much more to produce than Italy’s Prosecco. However, the flavours and aromas of Champagne are much more complex than Prosecco.

The use of natural yeasts adds complexity to wine but also adds intricacy to the winemaking process and increases cost over commercially manufactured yeast. This is one reason why naturally produced wines demand a higher price than their mass-produced counterparts.

New, high-quality oak barrels add rich flavour to the wine but are quite costly, thus demanding a higher price than wines produced in old oak or without oak. Also, the longer the wine is aged in the oak the greater the impact of the cost of space and time.

Vineyard maintenance, harvesting, and winemaking labour are major expenses, especially for vineyards that produce natural wines. These are wines made with the least possible use of chemicals, additives and overly technological procedures; included are biodynamic, organic and vegan wines.

Once the wine is made, it must be packaged for shipping. This includes the cost for glass bottles and labels, shipping boxes and additional transportation labels.

Brand reputation can also impact how much a consumer is willing to pay for a bottle of wine. The perception of quality and taste of a particular label or varietal can make consumers willing to spend more money on certain products due to their trust in the quality and craftsmanship of those wines. Some of the most notable wineries include Château Mouton Rothschild (Bordeaux, France), Domaine Leroy (Burgundy, France), Egon Müller (Mosel, Germany) and Screaming Eagle (Napa Valley, USA).

Finally, distributors, importers, and retailers must all get their share before you see the final product on liquor store shelves.

In conclusion, determining the price of a bottle of wine can be complex and multi-faceted. However, as the saying goes, you get what you are willing to pay for.

Sláinte mhaith

The Sweetness Level of Wine

/ A Layman's Wine Musings / Leave a comment
Photo credit: totalwine.com

Wine’s sweetness is determined by the amount of residual sugar that remains after fermentation is complete. It ranges from bone dry (less than 1 gram/litre) to very sweet (over 120 grams/litre). Wine sweetness levels are often, though not consistently, categorized as bone dry, dry, off-dry, semi-sweet, sweet and very sweet. Sweetness indicators are sometimes found on the bottle label or are available on the winery’s tech sheets.

It is interesting to note that wine experts do not always agree on the names of the categories or the scale used to describe sweetness. For example, where one authority considers a certain grams per litre ratio as dry, another considers it as off-dry.

Complicating things further, you will see that some types of wine may appear in more than one category. This is because there can be differences in the sweetness level depending on the fermentation process used by individual vintners. Yeast converts grape sugars to alcohol. If fermentation is stopped early, more sugar is left in the wine. Therefore, a single varietal, for example Riesling, may appear in more than one category.

While residual sugar is the main factor, other elements such as tannins (common in red wines) can make a wine feel drier than its sugar content would suggest.

Category Residual Sugar (g/L) Description
Bone DryLess than 1 g/LEssentially no distinguishable sweetness; very crisp.
Dry1 – 3 g/L Little to no noticeable sweetness.
Off-Dry4 – 12 g/LAn evident but not overwhelming amount of sweetness
Semi-Sweet12.1 – 35 g/LOverlaps with the Off-Dry and Sweet classifications.
Sweet35 – 120 g/LA significant amount of sweetness
Very SweetOver 120 g/LVery sweet; often dessert wines.

             

Listed below, by category, are many popular wines. The wines within each grouping appear in no particular order.

Level of DrynessRedWhite
Bone DryNebbioloMuscadet
MalbecChablis
ChiantiGrenache Blanc
BordeauxPinot Grigio
Barolo
DrySangioveseGruner
TempranilloSauvignon Blanc
Cabernet SauvignonPinot Gris
Pinot NoirChardonnay
SyrahChenin Blanc
MerlotVermentinu
Cabernet FrancSémillon
CarménèreViognier
ValpolicellaDry Riesling
BeaujolaisTrebbiano
GrenacheRoussanne
ZinfandelMarsanne
Off DryKabinett
Riesling
Chenin Blanc
Muller
Semi-SweetValpolicellaGewürztraminer
LambruscoSpatules
Riesling
SweetPortLate Harvest
Maury  Riesling
White Port
Very SweetTawny PortIcewine
IcewineRiesling
Vin Santo

To avoid disappointment in purchasing a too sweet or too dry wine, your best option is to pay attention to the grams per litre sugar level and choose your wine accordingly. The sweetness categories can help guide you, but because of their inconsistencies, they should not be relied on totally.

Sláinte mhaith

Additives in Wine

/ A Layman's Wine Musings / Leave a comment
Photo Credit: homebrewanswers.com

Left to the imagination, winemaking is simply the hand-picking of grapes from sun-kissed vines and patient aging in oak barrels. However, modern production often includes the use of additives to enhance flavour, stabilize the wine or mask defects. This may cause digestive upset, food sensitivity flares or even mood swings.

Here is a brief rundown on common additives, their regulation, benefits, potential drawbacks and how you can make informed choices about the wine you drink.

Fining Agents (e.g., Egg Whites, Casein, Gelatin)

Fining agents help to clarify and stabilize wine by removing unwanted particles. Their use is widely accepted but the use of egg or milk related products must be disclosed on the label since these items may result in an allergic reaction by anyone sensitive to them.

Glyphosate

Glyphosate is a widely used herbicide. Traces of glyphosate may be found in wines due to vineyard herbicide use, generating concerns about long-term health impacts. Its use is closely monitored though trace amounts have been detected in some wines worldwide. While levels are generally below health risk thresholds, the presence of glyphosates enhances the value of organic and biodynamic wines.

Mega Purple and Colouring Agents

The use of Mega Purple and other colouring agents is permitted in moderation in accordance with wine production laws and is not required to be disclosed on the wine label. Overuse of these materials can conceal flaws and mix flavour profiles.

Sugar (Chaptalization)

Sugar is used to increase the amount of alcohol generated during the fermentation process for cool-climate wines as natural sugar levels may be insufficient. Some wine regions permit their use while others do not. For example, it is prohibited in the southern wine regions in France but accepted in their northern wine regions. Overuse of sugar can make wines taste unnaturally sweet.

Sulfites (SO₂)

Sulfates are included to preserve freshness, prevent oxidation, and reduce microbial growth. Their use and quantities permitted are regulated though the limits vary by country. Most people can safely consume sulfites but anyone sensitive to them, particularly those with asthma, may suffer headaches or redness in the face. However, this is rare and these reactions are often confused with other sensitivities.

Tannin

Tannin is needed to make wine age-worthy. The grapes are full of seeds which are very tannic. The seeds are crushed with the grapes to add structure to wine. Small amounts of oak chips or tannin powder may be added to the wine as well.

Tartaric Acid

Tartaric acid is used to balance the wine’s acidity to improve the taste. Regulators considered its use safe and it is widely used in small quantities. If too much is used, the wine can taste sharp and be unbalanced.

Yeast and Nutrients

These are used to initiate fermentation and the different kinds of yeast affect the flavour of the resulting wine. The use of yeast is widely accepted among the wine producing nations. Overuse can result in mixed flavour profiles.

Minimizing Additives

To minimize the inclusion of additives in the wines that you drink, look for organic, biodynamic and natural wines as these minimize or eliminate synthetic additives and chemicals. Low-intervention wines are wines that have fewer additives. They will be labeled as “natural,” “minimal sulfites,” or “no added sulfites”.

Explore local wineries as smaller producers often have more transparency in their winemaking processes and may use fewer additives.

Natural wines are made with grapes and time, delivering pure flavours showcasing their origins. They prove that great wine doesn’t need artificial help. Avoid mass-produced wines for example, Apothic, La Crema, Ménage à Trois and Yellow Tail. Instead, investigate lower production wines that are often found in the specialized section of the wine store. In Ontario, that would be the “Vintages” section of the liquor store.

Wine additives are not fundamentally unsafe, but understanding their role can help you make choices aligned with your health and values.

Sláinte mhaith

Dessert Wine Trends

/ A Layman's Wine Musings / Leave a comment

As the name suggests, dessert wine is a sweet wine that is intended to be served alongside dessert. These wines are often rich in flavour and have a high sugar content.

Photo credit: varuninamdar.wordpress.com

There has been a growing demand for premium dessert wines aimed at satisfying consumer demand for high-quality and unique flavours. This has driven market growth by enticing wineries to improve and enhance their product offerings and release new artisanal options, which in turn command higher price points and increased revenue.

There is rising interest in low-alcohol dessert wines by health-conscious Millennials and the Gen Z population who desire lighter wines. These wines also appeal to a broad range of wellness seekers, thus enhancing market growth.

Again, health-conscious and ethically driven drinkers are creating demand for vegan and allergen-free wine alternatives. By excluding animal-derived fining agents, which are added to wine to alter its colour, flavour, texture, and clarity, new dessert wine markets become available. These agents include additives such as casein or gelatin.

There are generally five types of dessert wine. Thirty percent of the market is made up of fortified wines, consisting of Port, Sherry, Madeira and Marsala.

Late harvest wines are next, consisting of twenty-five percent of the dessert wine market. Included in this category are Late Harvest Riesling, Late Harvest Sémillon and Late Harvest Gewürztraminer.

Controlling twenty percent of the market is Ice Wine. Included are Eiswein and Ice Cider.

Botrytized Wines, also referred to as Noble Rot, consist of fifteen percent of the market. For an explanation of this type of wine, refer to my post, Dessert Wines from April 18, 2020. Wines in tis group include Sauternes and Tokaji Aszú.

The “Other” wine category make up the remaining ten percent of the dessert wine market. Included in this catch-all category is Recioto della Valpolicella, Vin Santo and Muscat / Moscato.

Sláinte mhaith

Wine Barrels

/ A Layman's Wine Musings / Leave a comment

Is the best wine made using French oak barrels or American oak barrels? The answer depends on who is answering. I would be amiss if I didn’t mention that there are also Hungarian oak and Romanian oak but these oaks are seldomly used in making wine.

Photo credit: bodegaspaniza.com

Oak can play a crucial role in the winemaking process. It is a long-known fact that not just any wood will do when it comes to aging wine. Oak has been the choice for centuries. Due to the natural wood compounds, aging wine in oak barrels exposes complex flavours and textures that are crucial to the overall taste and structure of a wine. There are natural wood sugars in the oak that influence the wine’s flavour. The wine’s texture can be enhanced from tannins found in the oak.

French Oak is known by winemakers for its subtlety. These trees have tighter grains that deliver lower amounts of tannin that are more readily integrated into the wine. This wood is also more aromatic, producing delicate notes of dark chocolate, roasted coffee beans, vanilla and baking spices to the wine.

American Oak presents more robust flavour profiles introducing bold vanilla notes along with coconut, sweet spices and dill. The wider grain patterns of American oak also injects more tannins into the wine.

French Oak lets wine age gracefully over time. The wine will evaporate less from barrels of French oak than American oak, thus producing a naturally slower oxidation. On the other hand, American oak will often go through a more rapid oxidation process in the barrel.

When it comes to price, American oak is less expensive to purchase. This is due to it being more readily available than French oak. However, French oak produces a more luxurious wine, making it well worth the higher price tag.

So, which wines work best with French oak versus American oak? Chardonnay flourishes when aged in French oak barrels because the French oak releases delicate vanilla undertones into the flavour of the wine.

Pinot Noir also benefits from the use of French oak. This light-bodied red grape works well with the lower tannin content inherent to French oak. It allows for slow maturation without overwhelming Pinot Noir’s naturally elegant profile.

In contrast, bold reds such as Zinfandel often get paired with American oak. The intense notes of coconut and sweet spice from the American oak can complement the robust nature of these types of wine.

Wines such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot or Syrah can work well with either French or American oak, depending on the winemaker’s desires. European winemakers tend to use French oak while American winemakers and some Australian vintners may use American oak. It all comes down to the desired style of the wine.

Many winemakers use both types of barrels or blend wines aged separately. It lets them control flavour profiles more precisely. The type of barrel used, or combination of barrels used will depend on the flavour notes the winemaker wants to achieve.

Sláinte mhaith

Sweetness Levels in Sparkling Wine

/ A Layman's Wine Musings / Leave a comment

With many people cruising wine store shelves this time of year looking for a bottle of bubbly to celebrate the season with, it is a good time to examine how to identify the various types sparkling wine or Champagnie. There is no doubt about it; the sweetness classification system for sparkling wines is confusing. There are seven standard sweetness categories. Those are brut nature or brut zero, extra brut, brut, extra sec, sec, demi sec and doux. Each class indicates slight differences in aromas and flavour.

Photo credit: coravin.com

The sweetness level is determined by the dosage or liqueur d’expedition, which is a mixture of sugar and wine. It is used to top off the amount of wine in the bottle after riddling has taken place. Riddling occurs when the winemaker removes the dead yeast cells (referred to as the lees) from the neck of the bottle.

The dosage mix may contain anywhere between 500 and 700 grams of sugar per litre of sparkling wine. The precise ratio of sweetener-to-wine varies according to the producers’ desires and region the wine is produced in. Some producers use a sweeter liqueur d’expedition, while others choose not to sweeten their wines at all.

The classification system was designed a hundred years ago by the French to identify the sugar levels in Champagne. This is part of the laws that govern the production of Champagne. The laws have been modified countless times over the years.

The seven levels from dryest to sweetest are:

Brut Zero/Brut Nature

These wines are the driest, containing less than three grams of sugar per litre. These wines may also be referred to as “sauvage” or “zero dosage”.  They contain only natural residual sugar with no dosage added to the bottle.

Spanish Cava and Corpinnat producers may refer to these wines as “brut nature”, where in Germany the term “naturherb” may be used.

Extra Brut

In Champagne as well as Spanish Cava and Corpinnat, “extra brut”, or in Germany “extra herb”, is used to describe the second driest level of sweetness. These wines contain less than six grams of residual sugar.

Brut

“Brut” is the most common style of Champagne. To be labeled a brut wine, it must contain less than 12 grams per litre of sugar. This is a broad range and technically includes both “brut nature” and “extra brut”, so this category can vary widely in sweetness levels.

This term is also used to describe Spanish Cava and Corpinnat. In Germany the style may be referred to as “herb.”

Extra Sec/Extra Dry

“Extra Sec” or “Extra Dry” wines are slightly sweeter than “brut”. They contain between 12 and 17 grams of sugar per litre.  In Spain, the style is referred to as “extra seco” and in both Germany and Australia the term “trocken” is used.

Sec

“Sec” wines contain sugar levels between 17 and 32 grams per litre. These wines are considered to be ‘medium dry’ or ‘off-dry.’

Demi-Sec

Wines labeled “demi-sec” or Spanish “semi seco” contain between 32 and 50 grams of sugar per litre. Fun fact, this is equivalent to the amount of sugar in a typical gin and tonic.

Doux

This is the sweetest style of sparkling wine with the highest sugar content, usually over 50 grams per litre. Doux wines are very rare.

Sláinte mhaith

Aging and Wine Vintage

/ A Layman's Wine Musings / Leave a comment

Before I begin let’s be clear on what ‘vintage wines’ are. Vintage wines are wines that are produced from grapes harvested during a single growing season as opposed to non-vintage wines, which can be produced from grapes grown in two or more growing seasons.

Photo credit: stlukes-glenrothes.org

Vintage wines that are cellared go through ongoing chemical effects that will continue until a bottle is uncorked. These outcomes are the result of continuous interactions between the wine’s alcohol, sugar and acid compounds, which combine in the bottle to create new complex flavours, textures and aromas. However, these results are not random. Skilled winemakers understand the chemistry behind aging wine and will manipulate the cellar environment to encourage various flavours and aromas that result in an appealing good vintage.

During cellaring the varietal’s natural flavours do not significantly change. A wine’s primary flavours will always be preserved regardless of cellaring timelines. These flavours are a result of the grape varietal and the conditions the grapes grew in.

However, aging a vintage varietal will affect the secondary and tertiary flavours and aromas. Both notes result from the winemaker’s techniques as well as the chemical interactions between a wine’s natural compounds. These activities define an aging wine.

White wines, especially dry whites like Sauvignon Blanc or Chardonnay, tend to become oily, heavy and stickier over time. Red wines, particularly those with naturally high tannin levels such as Nebbiolo, Syrah or Cabernet Sauvignon, tend to soften with time. This creates sediment that collects at the bottom of a bottle. As a result, the wine becomes smoother and less sharp, resulting in a gentler drinking experience.

The final characteristic affected by aging wine is colour. To see if a red wine has been properly aged, first look at the outer edge where the poured wine meets the glass. At that meeting point, which is referred to as the rim, the wine will appear lighter in colour. A young red wine, on the other hand, will have a rim that appears murky or opaque.

As red wines oxidize with age, their colours often change to deep shades of ruby-purple to softened mauves and then finally to tawny, deep browns. As white wine ages it tends to move from paler, straw-yellow shades to deeper golden hues. White vintages aged three or more years can eventually darken to the point of turning a golden amber color.

These changes in colour are the result of oxidation. When a wine bottle is properly sealed the only oxygen in a bottle will be the small amount trapped in the bottle’s neck, as well as what little oxygen passes through the cork or seal. Most cellared red and white vintages will be sealed with a traditional cork, which allows minimal oxygen to permeate. However, given that cork is itself a natural non-uniform product, oxygen permeation will vary significantly even between bottles cellared and cased at the same time.

Not all wines are created with the ability to be aged. The wine maker’s notes are often a good indication of a wine’s aging capability. Red wines that generally age well include:

  • Bordeaux and Loire Valley Cabernet Franc, aged 2 to 4 years
  • Chianti Riserva, aged 2 to 4 years
  • Petite Syrah, aged 2 to 5 years
  • New World Nebbiolo, aged 2 to 6 years
  • Australian and Californian Grenache, aged 2 to 10 years
  • Italian or Californian Cabernet Sauvignons, aged 3 to 15 years
  • Italian Barolo, aged 3 to 15 years

White wines with aging capability include:

  • Dry White Bordeaux, aged 2 to 3 years
  • Alsace Pinot Gris, 2 to 5 years
  • White Rioja, aged 2 to 5 years
  • Alsace Gewürztraminer, aged 2 to 10 years
  • Californian Fume Blanc, aged 2 to 10 years
  • New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc, aged 3 to 10 years
  • Australian Chardonnay, 3 to 10 years
  • German Riesling, 3 to 15 years

These lists are only a suggested guideline, not an exclusive list.

Sláinte mhaith

Vintage versus Non-vintage Wine

/ A Layman's Wine Musings / Leave a comment

On the surface, the difference between vintage and non-vintage wines is simple. Vintage wines are made from grapes harvested during a single growing season, while non-vintage wines can blend a few different harvests. Non-vintage wine, sometimes referred to as stylized wine, is where the winemaker often aims to match the flavour of the wine to be the same as previous years. On the other hand, vintage wines are based on the characteristics of the vineyard and climate. Due to climatic conditions, some years produce wines that are considered better than others.

Photo credit: vinepair.com

Finding a bottle’s vintage is relatively straightforward. Simply look for the year printed on the label of the bottle. This tells you when the grapes were grown and the wine produced was made. Wine labels containing the description “single vintage” indicate that the wine was produced exclusively from grapes from a single harvest. Depending on the producing country, that ratio must be comprised of 75% to 95% of same-crop grapes. As long as a producer abides by that percentage, they can label their bottle as vintage.

The vintage is an indication of the quality of the wine. The wine flavours, textures, mouthfeel, aroma and bouquets are fundamentally determined by the weather and climate conditions during its specific growing season. Since vintage tells you what year those grapes were grown, you are provided with an accurate distinction between “good” crop years yielding delicious, balanced wines from “bad” crop years hindered by poor weather.

Non-vintage wines are wines created by blending grapes from multiple crops. As a result, they will not have a year printed on the label or will simply have “N.V.” to denote the fact its contents are not from a single harvest. Non-vintage wine quality will vary, as with vintage wines. Many are raved about for their consistency and cost-consciousness and represent good value for more casual wine drinking.

Which is better? The answer depends on what you are looking for from your drinking experience. There are wonderful single vintages and non-vintages available. Non-vintages will offer more diversity and flexibility, particularly when it comes to blends combining several complementary grape varietals. In contrast, vintages provide the opportunity to discover a specific wine region, a micro-climate and even a winemaker’s bottling skills and expertise in ways non-vintages cannot.

Sláinte mhaith

Biodynamic Wine

/ A Layman's Wine Musings / Leave a comment

While visiting a winery in the Beaujolais district of France a few weeks ago I was introduced to a new term. I was told that the winery I was visiting was a biodynamic winery. This was a description I had not heard before, so I decided to research the topic in more depth when I returned home from my trip.

You may be familiar with what organic farming entails (if not, see my post Organic Wine from August 8, 2020), however the biodynamic movement is somewhat different. According to the Biodynamic Farming and Gardening Association, biodynamics is “a spiritual-ethical-ecological approach to agriculture, gardens, food production and nutrition.” Biodynamic wine is made with a set of farming practices that views the vineyard as one solid organism. The ecosystem functions with each portion of the vineyard contributing to the next. Conceptually, everything in the universe is interconnected and gives off a resonance or ‘vibe’. This interconnectivity even includes celestial bodies like the moon, planets and stars. Biodynamic viticulture is the practice of balancing this resonance between vine, human, earth and stars. Biodynamics is a holistic view of agriculture.

As with organic farming, natural materials, soils, and composts are used to sustain the vineyard. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are not permitted. A range of animals from ducks to horses to sheep live on the soil and fertilize it, creating a rich, fertile environment for the vines to grow in. Biodynamic farming also seeks sustainability, leaving the land in as good or better condition.

Biodynamic farming has been met with skepticism by many scientists as some of the practices are difficult at best to prove they work. In addition to organic practices, biodynamic farming takes other factors into account, such as the lunar calendar and astrology. This method of farming considers all aspects of life in the vineyard — other plants, insects and animals. It’s not just about the grapes.

Photo credit: winefolly.com

Farming practices from pruning to harvesting are controlled by the biodynamic calendar. It breaks all the tasks associated with farming into four types of days: root days, flower days, fruit days and leaf days. Each of these categories has certain tasks associated with it that are reflective of the earth’s four classical elements. Fruit days are meant for harvesting, leaf days for watering, root days for pruning. On flower days, nothing is done in the vineyard.

Biodynamic farming calls for specific and sometimes strange compost and field preparations. One of these is known as cow horn manure. Cow horns are stuffed with manure compost and buried into the ground all through the winter, then excavated the following spring. When excavated, the stuffed material is spread throughout the vineyard.

Biodynamic wines must be certified and adhere to strict rules and regulations. The wineries are overseen by 2 governing bodies, Demeter International and Biodyvin.

Biodynamic wines can be found in the United States, France, Germany, Spain, Italy, Eastern Europe, Chile, Argentina, India and Australia. Those who believe in the philosophy feel that the wines are more characteristic to the terroir where they originate. However, wine experts say there is no noticeable difference in the taste of biodynamic wine from organically produced wines. Is the difference worth the additional effort? You be the judge.

Sláinte mhaith

Winemaking Chemistry

/ A Layman's Wine Musings / Leave a comment

The natural method of winemaking is the result of a series of biochemical transformations caused by the action of several enzymes. Many of these enzymes originate from the grapes themselves. However, the enzymes found in the grapes, yeasts and other microorganisms are often not sufficient so commercial enzymes are often added to supplement winemaking requirements.

Enzymes are used in winemaking to break down certain components in the grape juice, such as pectin and proteins, which help clarify the wine and improve its flavour, as well as improve the quality and efficiency of the fermentation process. Enzymes are also used to remove unwanted substances such as tannins.

To accomplish all this several different types of enzymes are used.

Pectinases are enzymes that break down pectin, which is a complex carbohydrate found in the cell walls of the plants.  The result is simpler sugars that can be fermented by yeast.

Beta-glucanases break down beta-glucans, which are complex sugars found in the cell walls of yeast and can cause problems during fermentation.

Proteases are enzymes that break down proteins into smaller peptides and amino acids, which can also be utilized by yeast during fermentation.

Glucosidases help to release aromatic compounds from the grape juice, which can enhance the flavour and aroma of the wine.  The selection of active yeast, fungal and bacterial glycosidases enhance the wine aroma.

Lipases are enzymes that break down fats and lipids, which can improve the clarity, filtration and stability of the wine.  They also assist with improving the pressing efficiency and juice extraction.

Anthocyanins contribute greatly to red wines because these molecules and their interactions with other compounds are responsible for the colour and the stability of red wine during ageing.

Exogenous enzymes are often used to accelerate the extraction of anthocyanins from the berry skin increasing the colour intensity of the wine.

The diagram below demonstrates where enzymes may be injected into the wine making process.  It is an excellent illustration as to why vintners require a strong biology or bio-chemical background.

Photo credit: creative-enzymes.com

Sláinte mhaith